Matt+K

= = = The Search for Life on Mars = = =

__ From Big Bang to Galaxies __
= = The earth used to be very hot. But something emerged known as the "Big bang". Particles of matter was created. It was a mix of radiant energy and exotic particles such as Quarks and Anti Quarks. After 1 second, the temperature falls to 10,000,000,000 degrees. The universe is dominated by radiant energy and light particles such as electrons. When the time of 3 minutes is up, a quarter of the protons and neutrons have combined to make helium nuclei. The universe keeps expanding, and the temperature continues to drop. Our galaxy started as a big ball of gas. The halo of the galaxy was scattered stars around a big ball of gas, and the rest of it formed a disc around a central bunch and spiral arms developed. = =

= =

= = = __ History of the Solar System __ = = = The sun formed when the gravity pulled together as a cloud of dust. The spinning ball soon broke apart into a thin plate with a ball of gas in the center. In the thin plate, were little solid particles that would mix together into bigger and bigger particles. The particles kept gathering together into bigger clumps and bonds, known as planetesimals. The ring had different temperatures, depending on the distance from the ring to the particle. If it was closer to the ball, the temperature was hotter, if it was further away, it was colder. Finally the particles all came together, and eventually, the four terrestrial planets formed: Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. Their surfaces were heated from constant bombardment, and radioactivity would also generate heat as well. The moon was also formed, being cratered from bombardments. Eventually, many planetesimals were collided and destroyed, ejected to the outer solar system and had settled into the asteroid belt between the planets mars and Jupiter. Some had orbited around other planets. If they were close enough to the sun, they would turn into comets. = =

= =

= =

__ The Milky Way Galaxy __
= =

= = Usually during a clear night, patches of stars appear, known as the Milky Way galaxy which rings around all of the planets in the solar system. The milky way is a disc around a large bulge, filled with dusk. The Milky way holds a small galaxy, and the opposite side of it is our solar system, with the sun in the middle. In the central part of the large bulge in the center of the Milky Way, in the 15 light years, lies the nucleus of the galaxy. It is most likely to be an enormous black hole, with a giant clump of gas clouds circling around it and a disc of dust around the edges. It takes the sun 250,000,000 years to travel a full circle around the galaxy, going 150 kilometers per second. = =

= =

= =

__ The Sun __
= =

= =

= = The biggest star in the Milky Way galaxy is something we all know, known as the sun. The sun is much clearer than most other stars, it’s a ball of hot gas. 76% of the sun is hydrogen, and most of the rest is helium. During an eclipse, the suns outer most layer, the corona, streams out from over the yellow disc of photosphere. The temperature in the corona is millions of degrees. The suns power house is in its central core. The gas is 20% denser than iron. Every second, 4 million tons of hydrogen vanish to generate the suns energy. The energy radiates into the outer core. Huge prominence can erupt from active areas on the sun. The most active region is called a solar flare. Solar flares can blast atomic particles from the sun to the earth and beyond. These particles add to the gas constantly streaming away from the sun and into the solar system. The earths magnetic field funnels particles downwards, near the north and south poles. These particles crash into the outer atmosphere making it glow with an aurora. The suns magnetic field is 5 times as strong as the earth's. = =

= =

= =

__ Lives of Stars __
= =

= =

= = Stars often form in cold clouds of nothing but dust and gas. A blast wave from an exploding stars causes clumps to form. Each core gradually contracts as gravity pulls it together. Near the center the collapse will accelerate faster and faster. A proto star forms with a gas still shrouding around it. The star spins faster as it shrinks down. The most massive stars are bluish white. The surface temperature is 40,000 degrees. White stars are according to letter, our star, the sun, is G. The light depends on the size of the star. B stars have a temperature of 15,000 degrees. A stars are 8,200 degrees. F stars are 6,600 degrees. The G star, or the sun in our case, is measured at 5,800 degrees, while K stars are 4,300 degrees, and finally M stars are 3,300 degrees. It would take about 100 stars together to shine as brightly as the sun. About 5 billion years ago, the sun formed from a cloud, being stables as a yellowish orange star. As years go by, it starts to run out of chemicals such as helium, shrinking down to what it is today. The sun then grows to truly giant, darkening to orange, and becoming 1,000 times larger than a star. The sun then keeps shrinking again, creating a nebula ring and finally shrinks down to earths size. Larger stars are different, starting off blue white, it expands, cools, and starts to turn yellow. However it will keep shrinking and growing into a pattern for about a month. Eventually, the massive star becomes a super giant, shedding material along the way. In the stars core, different particles keep it shining. The stars can explode however, when the core of it collapses, creating a nuclear explosion. = =

= Hubble Deep Field Academy =

Throughout the Hubble Deep Field Academy, it was mainly about comparing responses and observations with astronomer's responses and observations. **Orientation** In the Orientation, we were supposed to ask questions. Some of the questions, compared to the astronomers questions were fairly similar, however most of them were completely different. Some of the astronomer's questions were: "How many objects are there in the HDF?", "How can the objects be classified and identified?", "How far away are the objects?" etc. Compared to our questions, the astronomer's questions were very professional unlike ours. **Level 1- Stellar Statistician** In this beginner level, we were supposed to click on one of the four images in the Hubble Deep Field Picture that was taken (and will be seen in the next couple of levels), then click on one of the sections. After we view the small picture, we count all of the objects we see. After you submit your estimate, it will multiply it by the 12 sections, and then the 4 main photos, and finally it multiplied it by 30 billion to get a clears estimate on how many objects there are in the universe. Overall in the image, there were 3,000 objects in the image. In the universe, there is about 50 to 100 billion objects. **Level 2- Cosmic Classifier** In this medium level, we were supposed to classify and name the objects that were in a part of the photo of the HAL. They would go under 5 categories: Cross, Irregular, Spiral, Oval, or Circle. Then, we would have to tell what color it is: Blue, White, Yellow, or Red. It was very hard doing this one, because you could not really tell which was which, and classifying the object was difficult. One of the objects were irregular and blue, classified as 2. Another was white and a cross shaped object, numbered 17. Another was numbered 28, a blue and spiral shaped object. **Level 3- Distance Wizard** In this high level, we were supposed to place the objects in order from furthest to closest (top to bottom), estimating how close or far the objects were from us and then compare it with the astronomers answers. The answers from top to bottom ended up being: F, D, C, A, E, and B as the furthest. Astronomers can estimate distance in space by using size and the light an object emits. **Level 4- Deep Field Observer** The last level on the Hubble Deep Field Academy. We were supposed to answer all of the questions listed on the 'assignment'. For example, "What does the light/shape of a galaxy indicate?". The light or shape of a galaxy indicates the distance. Astronomers do not use size alone to indicate the distance, they also use the light it emits. Another one was to explain how astronomers find a way to estimate how many galaxies there are in the universe. Astronomers use something called "Representative sampling" to obtain their estimate. The sky is equally grouped into sections of the same size and number of galaxies in one section counted. The count from that one section is then multiplied by the total number of sections in the sky. Astronomers estimated about 50 to 100 billion galaxies in the universe.



The History on Rockets


The Hero Engine works by steam as a propulsive gas. Hero mounted a sphere on top of a water kettle. A flame under the kettle transformed the water into steam, and the gas went through pipes to the ball-shaped sphere. Two L-shaped looking tubes on opposite ends of the sphere caused the gas to escape, and in doing so gave a thrust to the sphere that caused it to rotate.

The Chinese used a diversity of ways to employ rocketry. The first century A.D., the Chinese reportedly had a simple form of gunpowder made from saltpeter, sulfur, and charcoal dust to create explosions during religious festivals, they filled bamboo tubes with a mixture and tossed them into fires. However, these experiments soon became a failure, exploding and created scattered fires, propelled by the gases and sparks created by the burning gun powder. Soon, the ended making this into weaponry by attaching bamboo tubes to arrows and launched them with bows. Soon they discovered that these gunpowder tubes could launch themselves just by the power produced from the escaping gas. The true rocket was born. **Labeling parts of the** **Model** **Rocket** This is a picture of the Model me and my lab partner Shane Hoffman made, which includes the 8 parts of rocket.



__Rocket Experiment__

This project was called Rocket Experiment, the purpose of this experiment was to understand how a Rocket, or in this case how a model rocket works. Throughout this experiment, we understood the stages of a rocket: Ignition, Lift Off, Coasting Apogee, Ejection, and Recovery. After that, we built a model rocket within less than a week, painted them, and launched them. We painted the rocket for several reasons, such as affecting the weight so the altitude would alter. After the rocket was shot, two instruments were used: The angle gun and the trundle wheel to calculate the altitude of the rocket using the formula 100 meters* tan(angle). After that, we calculated that the altitude was 60.1 meters We then used that data and put it on a graph in Microsoft EXCEL to compare it with the mass and how it affected the altitude. The mass of the model rocket was 44.8 grams. Overall, we understood how the mass of rockets affects the Max Altitude.



A trundle wheel was used to measure 100 meters. When the rocket was launched in the air, an angle gun was used to measure the angle of the altitude of the rocket. The angle of the altitude that the rocket flew was 31 degrees. When the rocket launched, it started to fly backward, and when the parachute was ejected, the rocket gently floated down to the surface. It hit the ground a little roughly, and it would flip and turn a little, and finally it stopped. After the launch, we calculated the Mass of the Rocket vs. the Max Altitude angle the rocket flew. We took the angles and masses of everybody in the class. However, the individual rocket that was flown had an altitude angle of 21 and the mass was 44.8 grams. We used the formula 100*tan(angle). Finally, the altitude using trigonometry was 60.1, and we compared how it was affected by the mass of the rocket. The data was put into the table above.

=__ The Mars Rover Drop Vehicle __=

The assignment was to create a Mar Rover Drop Vehicle, or a common project, "The Egg Drop" to protect an egg from surviving a two story drop at the track bleachers onto a square target. Materials were provided such as pipe cleaners, tape, scissors, paper, paper towels, balloons, cups, rubber bands, bubble wrap, a plastic bag, etc. First off, the vehicle contained two cups, four rubber bands, a sheet, bubble wrap, 2 sheets of paper towels, 3 sheets of paper, Popsicle sticks, and tape. The egg was inserted into the plastic cup, a little crushed around the rim, then put into another plastic cup and was tightly secured with 2 rubber bands. Then, it was wrapped in bubble wrap, secured with 2 more rubber bands. The whole thing was put into the plastic bag, filled with air, and sealed tight. A balloon was taped to the top to cushion the fall. We put weight on the balloon to make sure the balloon would hit the ground first. Some Popsicle sticks and three pieces of paper were taped to the balloon to weight the balloon. To finish it off, two paper towels were crumpled up and put in the plastic bag for extra cushion and protection. We had the maximum of 45 seconds to take the egg out of the vehicle to make sure the egg safely landed and no damage was taken. The day the egg was dropped, the egg landed on the target and was safely taken out of the vehicle, no damage was done to it. What worked well was the balloon that was taped on top of the vehicle, and what didn't work well was that the egg was a little over-secured which made it difficult for the egg to get out of the vehicle. Next time, the egg should be secured, but there should be a way it can be taken out of the vehicle easier.



__** Programming Robots **__

Robots are functioned by motors. Motors are machines, usually powered by electricity that supplies motive power for a vehicle or any other device. Robots typically have human attributes or wheels. The Lego Mindstorm Robot used in class had wheels. They were used to go forward, backwards, turn left or right. Even though it only had 4 functions, it could be emphasized using different powers. A Lego Mindstorms Robot has 3 motors. They are what create the movements of forward, backward, and turning. Forwards and backwards functions are simple for the motors, but for the turns it is a little difficult. When turning left on a point turn, the left wheel does nothing and the right wheel rotates forward. A right turn on a point turn, the right wheel does nothing and the left wheel rotates forward. On a curve turn to the left, the right wheel goes faster than the left wheel. ON a curve turn to the right, the left wheel goes faster than the right wheel. Plus, these robots could also be used using sensors.



A sensor is a device that detects or measures a physical property and records, indicates, or otherwise responds to it. There were 4 different kinds of sensors that were attached to the robot. The four sensors were an ultra sonic sensor (a sensor that views objects in front of it), a light sensor, a sound sensor, and a touch sensor. These sensors were used for different kinds of challenges and tasks. The sound sensor was used for detecting different volumes which caused it to move or activate motion in different ways. The light sensor was used for detecting different lines by indication of different measures of darkness. The ultra sonic sensor was used to detect objects in front of it by using different measurements in centimeters. Finally, the touch sensor was used to touch any object in front of it which caused it to change its activated motion.



Geology on Mars
On Earth, Geologists use many tests to identify different minerals. One way is the acid test, they would pour a type of acid such as hydrochloric acid on a rock or mineral to figure out what mineral it is. They will go to hard to reach places and hike a lot to identify minerals. They will search everywhere, like a location where a river used to be, or the side of a canyon. Curiosity identifies mineral by using a laser which they put on a mineral and it will show them how the light reflects on it which figures out its chemical composition. Geologists also try to figure out if it is a mineral by putting a drill into the side of a rock and see what powder comes out, after that they identify if it has organic molecules.

The simplest way to identify minerals is by color. Even though it isn't the most helpful way, it can still be helpful. Another way is by luster, or the way a mineral reflects light. You could also look at the color of the mark a mineral makes when it is rubbed against a hard surface, or the streak. A way a mineral breaks is called the cleavage. The ease of scratching a mineral is called hardness. Finally, the density of the material is called the specific gravity. There are many ways to identify a mineral.

Curiosity identifies mineral by using a laser which they put on a mineral and it will show them how the light reflects on it which figures out its chemical composition. Geologists also try to figure out if it is a mineral by putting a drill into the side of a rock and see what powder comes out, after that they identify if it has organic molecules.



__ Characteristics of Life __
For something to be living, it needs lots of signs of life. Such as being made of cells, the need for materials, being homeostatic, responding to stimuli, reproducing, growing, adapting and respiration. Cells are the fundamental units of living things, they have many parts, or organelles. There are three cells: Animal Cells, Plant Cells, and Bacteria Cells. Sometimes cells are organized: Tissues, organs, organ systems, and organisms. Living things also need materials like water, minerals, and air. They take what they need from the environment they live in. For example, plants need CO2 and water for photosynthesis. Homeostatic is internally living things stay about the same despite environmental changes. Humans are homeostatic from temperature, excretion, and repair. Living things also respond to stimuli, there are two types: Positive and Negative. Positive moves towards stimulus while negative moves away from stimulus. Reproduction is the process by which organisms produce offspring of their own kind. Plants and animals reproduce in a variety of ways: Sexual reproduction (two parents) and asexual reproduction (one parent). Some can't reproduce, but that doesn't mean they aren't living. All living things grow, they develop from a lower or simpler to a higher or more complex form. Not all things grow at the same rate or reach the same size. Living things need to adapt to get used to their environment. Adaption is modifications that make an organism suited to its way of life. Finally, living things respire, or release energy stored in chemical bonds of sugars (foods). If organisms don’t have all of the 8 qualities, they are not considered living.



It takes lots of research to find out if a planet, star, or even galaxy has life on it. However, recently NASA has discovered a new way to detect life on other planets. It's a method called "Spectroscopy Light Polarization (SLP)", it effectively measures the amount of cloud cover, ocean, and vegetation on a planet. The breakthrough allows astronomers to study the atmospheric and surface features on planets in other solar systems. Many famous scientists, including Dr. Michael Sterzik from the European Southern Observatory in Chile, used SLP to look for chemical bio-signatures in Earthshine - sunlight reflected by the Earth onto the surface of the Moon and back again. This machinery is amazing and an astonishing breakthrough in science.