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Electricity in a Search for Life on Mars

Electricity occurs between electrically charged particles, and causes masses to attract or repel. These particles can be negatively or positively charged after losing or gaining electrons and ending up with a different number of electrons than their number of protons. Positive particles have lost electrons, and negative atoms have gained electrons. The opposite charges will attract, while similarly charged electrons repel. Some atoms have the same number of electrons and protons, so they are neither positively nor negatively charged, and are neutral. There are three main types of electricity: current, static, and discharge. Current is electricity moving in a controlled manner, like in the wires used for computers. Static electricity occurs when an object becomes negatively charged after rubbing against another object and gaining electrons. Rubbing a balloon on hair creates static electricity. Electric discharge is the fast movement of electricity from one place to another. It can happen after something builds up static electricity and becomes negatively charged. Then, when another object which is positively charged is put near the original object, there is an electric discharge. Lightning is also a form of electric discharge. On a mission to Mars, there would be many uses for electricity. The rocket itself might have an engine powered by electricity, and also any lights inside it would need electricity. The control panel on the rocket would have wires in it containing electricity, and any refrigerator for food would not work without electricity. There are many other uses of electricity on a mission, but these are probably the most important.

Magnetism in a Search for Life on Mars

Magnetism is a force that causes specific materials, usually metals, to attract or repel. It can cause objects to repel if they both have the same magnetic pole (north and north or south and south). Magnetism also makes objects of opposite magnetic poles to attract (south and north or north and south). The Earth has a magnetic field that comes from the outer core and protects the Earth from most outside particles. Magnetism is also used in compasses. The needle of the compass aligns with the magnetic field lines around the compass and make it point north. Some birds and fish even have small pieces in their brains that help them navigate. On a trip to Mars, there would be many objects with magnetism. In the rocket, any wires with electric current would create magnetism, and all of the atoms would have a small magnetic field. Once on mars, magnetism could be used for navigation.

__Astronomy __

The universe began 15 million years ago in an explosion called the Big Bang. There was a dense mix of radiant energy and exotic particles like quarks and antiquarks. The universe started smaller than an atomic nucleus, then expanded rapidly to the size of the Earth. Matter(protons and neutrons) and antimatter(antiprotons) were formed. When antimatter and matter came into contact, they became energy. A quarter of the neutrons and protons combined to make Helium nuclei. Electrons started orbiting the nuclei to create atoms (helium and hydrogen). The first signs of structure in the universe appeared as ripples in the "smooth" radiation, and the formation of galaxies began. Gravity caused clumps of matter to grow and become denser. Our galaxy started as a huge sphere of gas. Stars formed, and the rest of matter became a disc around the center of the galaxy. The types of galaxies are elliptical, spiral, and irregular. Galaxies used to be much closer than they are now, and had many collisions and merges. Light in the Milky Way comes from a huge number of individual stars. The dark patches are clouds of opaque dust. The whole galaxy is turning, and each star and gas cloud is in its own orbit. There is a flat disc of stars and a thinner layer of gas and dust inside the disc. The large flattened central bulge has the nucleus of the galaxy in its center. The nucleus is a massive black hole with a ring of clouds and a disc of dust. Stars are mainly red and orange near central bulge (old stars) and they are thousands of times closer than stars in the sun's part of the galaxy. 4 spiral arms wind out from central bulge (bright blue young stars and pink clouds of hydrogen gas). Spiral arms are where matter temporarily piles up, not permanently turning with the galaxy. lobular star clusters gather in a circular halo 1,030 light years from the center of the galaxy. The Milky Way is surrounded by a huge invisible corona with 10 times more material than can be seen in the form of stars, gas, and dust. On the side of galaxy opposite the Sun, a dwarf galaxy is merging with Milky Way. Stars form in cold, dark clouds of gas and dust. A blast wave from an exploding star causes cores to form. Each core gradually shrinks when gravity pulls it together, and it also rotates. Energy from the gas heats the center of the core. This causes a proto-star to form, surrounded by an area with no gas. The temperature of star is hot enough for nuclear reactions. The star spins faster, causing it to flatten into a disk. The gas that came from the star clears away the cloud of dust. The star will stop changing, but it will continue to turn hydrogen gas into helium to create nuclear energy. The size and color of a star is based on its mass. Stars with less mass are smaller and dimmer and have lower surface temperatures. About 5 billion years ago, the Sun formed and became a stable yellow star. In another 5 billion years, the Sun will run out of hydrogen, its nuclear fuel. The Sun's outer layers will expand until it has doubled in size and it becomes orange. The Sun will start to blow off large amounts of material, resulting in a temporary drop in size. Then it will become larger, brighter, and redder than ever before, and its structure will become unstable. It will keep losing material until it has half its original mass. The layer around the innermost core of the Sun will be flung off and create a planetary nebula. After this process, it will have become a white dwarf star. Eventually, it will cool down and fade. Stars up to 8 times the mass of the Sun will all follow a similar pattern. Larger stars will expand, cool, and start to turn yellow. For a while the star will be unstable. Later, it will become a red supergiant and create a core of iron. The core will then collapse, and part of the imploding core will create a shockwave that blows the star apart and creates a supernova explosion. 76% of the Sun's mass is hydrogen, and most of the rest is helium. During an eclipse, the Sun's outermost layer, the corona, is visible outside of the photosphere. The chromosphere is between the corona and the photosphere. It is made of red glowing flames. The gas in the Sun's core is 20 times more dense than iron. In the Sun, hydrogen nuclei and single protons crash together and create helium nuclei. 4 million tons of hydrogen vanish every second to generate the Sun's energy, which radiates from the core. The Sun's surface contains hot gas bubbling up. Sun spots appear in disturbed areas, often in pairs or groups. They looks dark because they are much cooler than the surrounding areas. The most intense bursts of energy that erupt from the Sun are called solar flares. They can blast atomic particles as far as the Earth. The Earth's magnetic field sends these particles to the north and south poles. They then crash into the upper atmosphere and create aurora. The Sun's own magnetic field is about 5 times stronger than the Earth's magnetic field. It controls the appearance of sun spots and many other parts of the sun. The sun spins about once a month. Each magnetic field line is tied into the fabric of the Sun. When the sun turns, the field gets more wound up and distorted. Sun spots form where the magnetic field loops out through the surface of the Sun. The pattern of the magnetic field eventually breaks down and a regular field is created. This process takes about 11 years, then repeats. Individual sun spots last a few weeks at most. The overall number of spots and where they appear both change throughout the cycle. After a few years, the number of sun spots reaches a peak, and then decreases until the cycle repeats again. Particles started to group together into clumps called planetesimals. Near the sun they are made from rock and metal. Far away from the sun where it was coldest, there were icy planetesimals. The planetesimals were first close together, but then some collided and formed larger objects. In the outer solar system, 4 large masses formed, which became the giant planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. They grew discs, where moons were created. Because these planets had so much mass, they had enough gravity to attract and hold a thick atmosphere of gas. In the inner solar system, there were too many collisions for large planets to form. Eventually, 4 terrestrial planets were made: Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. Their surfaces were heated because of constantly being hit, and there was also radioactive heat on the inside. The heavier rock sank to the middle and lighter rock rose to the surface. Then, they cooled down and solidified. The moon was created in a collision between the Earth and another planet. All moons were hit by outside rocks for about a million years. Eventually, most planetesimals were destroyed in collisions, ejected the outside the solar system, or sent into the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. A few also became the moons of planets. Icy planetesimals from outside the solar system became comets when close enough to the warmth of the sun. The rings around planets are made from planetesimals being torn apart by gravity when they got too close. Now, rocks from outer space hitting earth are much less common than they were near the creation of the planets.
 * From Big Bang to Galaxies **
 * The Milky Way Galaxy **
 * Lives of the Stars **
 * The Sun **
 * History of the Solar System **

__**Rocket History**__ One of the first rocket-like devices was created by a Greek named Hero of Alexandria. It was called and aeolipile, and was moved by steam. It was made from a sphere on top of a water kettle. A fire would be it below the kettle, turning the water to steam. The steam would then travel through pipes to the sphere. Two more tubes on the sphere allowed the gas to escape, and the push from the gas caused sphere to rotate. The early Chinese filled bamboo tubes with a gunpowder mixture, then threw them into fires. The few tubes that were propelled out of the fire by the gases and sparks inspired the first rockets. "Fire-arrows" were used by the Chinese against the attacking Mongols in a battle. They were tubes, capped at one end and containing gunpowder. The end without the cap was left open, and a long stick was also attached. When the powder in the tube was ignited, the smoke and gas produced would propel the rocket forwards. The stick on the rocket was used as a guide to keep the rocket going in the same direction. After the battle was over, the Mongols began to create rockets, which may have then traveled to Europe. In England, the monk Roger Bacon improved gunpowder and helped increase the range of rockets. In France, Jean Froissart discovered that the rockets could have more accurate flight paths if they were launched through tubes. This idea was the early version of the modern bazooka. In Italy, Joanes de Fontana of Italy created a rocket-powered torpedo to set enemy ships on fire. Konstantin Tsiolkovsky had an idea to use liquid propellants in rockets to explore space. He created a report saying that the speed and range of rockets were only limited by the exhaust velocity of the escaping gases, and he has been called the father of modern astronautics. Robert H Goddard performed experiments in rocketry because he wanted to achieve higher altitudes than were possible for balloons. Goddard experimented with solid-propellant rockets, and determined that rockets could only be propelled very well by liquid fuel. On March 16, 1926, he built the first liquid-propellant rocket. While it only flew for several seconds, it inspired many other rockets. Goddard experimented with liquid-propellant rockets for many years after. The rockets became bigger and could fly higher. He created a system for flight control and parachute systems to return rockets safely. The Verein fur Raumschiffahrt rocket society in Germany created the V-2 rocket to use against London during World War II. It was small, but had great thrust and could be a powerful weapon. This caused the United States and the Soviet Union to create long range missiles, which then led to rockets launching astronauts into space. In 1957, the Soviet Union launched a satellite into space. Soon afterwards, the United States sent out its own satellite. Later that year, the US created the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. It was an agency meant to explore space and help humankind. Soon after, many people and machines began to be launched into space. Astronauts orbited Earth and landed on the Moon, and robot spacecraft went to other planets. Satellites helped scientists learn more about the world, forecast weather, and have more communication around the world. More powerful and long-lasting rockets were also built.

Chinese Fire-Arrow

V-2 Rocket

__**Rocket Experiment**__ The nosecone parts the air in front of the rocket and makes it easier for it to pass through the air. The body tube is the main part of the rocket, usually a tube, which every thing else is connected to. The recovery system is used to prevent the rocket from being damaged, and includes a parachute. The recovery wadding protects the recovery system from the hot gases from the motor. The launch lug guides the rocket off the launch pad. The 3 fins make sure the rocket continues to travel in a straight line. The motor mount keeps the motor in place. The motor propels the rocket and fuels it.

The purpose of this experiment was to determine how the weight of a rocket affected the height it flew. 9 rockets were used by the class. Each rocket was painted, which affected the weight of the rockets: a rocket with more paint would be heavier. While launching the rockets, angle guns would be needed to measure the altitude angle of each rocket. A trundle wheel which made clicking noises was used to measure the distance the angle gun users should be from the rocket. The experiment was performed by putting each rocket onto a stand and then igniting the fuel. This caused the rocket to fly into the sky. Afterwards, trigonometry was used to find the maximum altitudes of the rockets. To calculate this, the tangent of the numbers found with the angle guns was multiplied by 100. The result of the experiment was that the heavier rockets flew lower than the lighter rockets. This is proven because the heavier rockets generally went to lower heights. For example, the rocket weighing 48.1 grams traveled to an altitude angle of 20, while the rocket weighing 44.9 grams traveled to 45 degrees. When the motor was put into use, the rocket flew into the sky on the first try. The parachute also successfully came out of the rocket because of the pressure caused by the gas from the motor. The rocket landed safely without being damaged or losing any parts. The paint on the rocket probably made it heavy because of the many dots that had been painted on it.

__**Egg Drop**__ We designed the vehicle with a plastic bag "parachute" and an egg carrier below that made from a cup. The parachute had 4 popsicle sticks in it so that it was held open and there would be more air resistance. The egg carrier had 4 more popsicle sticks in it to keep the cup from being crushed when landing. There was also bubble wrap around the cup. Under the cup there were 4 more popsicle sticks and 3 pieces of paper so that the carrier would land with the egg facing up. The egg carrier landed successfully without being damaged, but the egg rolled out of the carrier afterwards. Also, the parachute didn't provide much air resistance. Next time, I would want to put a cover on the egg carrier so that the egg would not roll out. Egg Drop Vehicle

ROBOT HISTORY A robot is a mechanical artificial being that is guided by a computer program or electric circuitry. The idea of artificial beings began in ancient civilizations, such as the Greek and Roman empires. In the 5th century BC, Archytas of Tarentum built a mechanical bird driven by a jet of steam or compressed air, which is arguably the first robot. During Industrial Revolution, robots began to become developed for use in factories, with electricity and motors. Now, robots are being used for household purposes, such as vacuuming, and also for exploring other planets. They have become popular children's toys, such as Knex robots and Hexbugs.

**__Rocket Movements and Sensors__** The motors on the robots convert the electrical energy from the batteries in to mechanical energy which moves the robot and makes it perform specific tasks. The robots are capable of many different movements, such as driving forwards, driving backwards, turning, accelerating, and slowing down. There are 2 different types of turns, point turns and curve turns. A robot does a point turn while standing in the same spot, but for a curve turn it will turn gradually while still moving. To be able to do these movements, the robots must be programmed with exact measurements and other information. The sensors on the robots make them able to register when certain things, such as reflecting light, sound, and distance of objects. The robot can then be programmed to react when the sensors sense something. The sound sensor tells the robot when something makes a sound, such as a person clapping. This makes it possible for the robot to avoid the source of the sound. The ultrasonic sensor measures the distance objects are away from the robot. The robot can know how close a wall is and turn so that it doesn't run into the wall. The light sensor reflects the light around the robot so it can know when it has entered a different environment.

__**Geology**__ The identity of a mineral can be found using many methods, such as observing the color, luster, florescence, cleavage or fracture, streak, and hardness. The luster can be found by seeing how light reflects off the mineral, and florescence can be observed by shining a UV light on the mineral, and seeing if they glow a certain color. When minerals are broken, they can have cleavage or fracture. Minerals with cleavage break along smooth surfaces, but those with fracture break jaggedly. Streak can be used by scratching a mineral on an unglazed clay tile and seeing what color the drawn line is. The hardness of a mineral can be identified by scratching it with other materials with known hardness's and seeing if there is a mark left behind. To perform geology experiments on Mars, Curiosity first drills into the rocks on Mars, which creates powder. Then the robot picks up the powder and puts it inside itself, where there are two analytical chemistry laboratories. These laboratories can then determine which minerals and chemical elements are in the powder. The results from the laboratories can be sent to Earth, where the information can tell scientists more about the history of Mars.