Haley+H+SFLOM

//**What Electricity is and how it could be used on Mars!**//

** Electricity - The Three Types and what it is ** In order to travel to Mars we need electricity. However, first we need to know was electricity is and what the three kinds of electricity are. So what is electricity? Electricity is a entity of nature that consists of positive and negative kinds. These kinds are observable in the attractions and repulsions of bodies that are electrified by friction or in a natural phenomena. The three types of electricity are static charge, electric discharge, and electric current. A static charge is the unbalance of an electric charge which causes the removal of electrons because of the rubbing of two objects together. An example of a static charge would be rubbing a balloon against your hair. The second type of electricity is an electric discharge. An electric discharge is the rapid movement of a charge from one place to another. An example of an electric discharge would be lightning during a thunderstorm. The third type and finally type of electricity is an electric current. An electric current is the flow of an electric charge in a controlled manner. An example of an electric current would be wires in your home that provide energy for your appliances. These are the three different kinds of electricity and what electricity is.

**The Use of Electricity on Mars** Without electricity, traveling and searching for life on Mars would be very difficult. Without electricity and the three different types of electricity we wouldn’t be able to get to Mars, stay on Mars, or search for life on Mars. There are many different ways that we would use electricity, both in and off of the spaceship. We would use electricity to power the lights on the inside and outside of the spaceship. We would use electricity to power the engine so that we could make the journey to Mars. We would use electricity for an electric heater and air conditioning to make the inside of the spaceship more roomie and comfy. However, most importantly, we would use electricity to power different devices that we could use for communication, like radios. Without the electricity to power our communication devices, we would not be able to communicate with the space center on Earth for support and help when needed. There are many things that we could use electricity for inside the spaceship, but there are also many things that need electricity outside of the spaceship in order to work. For an example, we would use electricity to power our Rover that we send out on Mars to collect samples of the items around him. After he collects the samples, we would keep them and later give them to the people back home or leave them with us for farther examining at the lab, which is powered by electricity too. Overall, traveling to Mars and looking for life on Mars would be very hard without electricity.

//**What Magnetism is and how it can be used on Mars!**//

**Magnetism - What it is and how it can affect objects** Magnetism is a magnets ability to attract or repel other magnets. There are three ways that magnetism can affect objects. The first way that magnetism affects objects is that it can cause two magnetic objects to attract to one another. This happens when one object's north pole is facing the other object's south pole and since opposite charges attract, the two objects attract to one another. The second way that magnetism affects objects is that it can cause two magnetic objects to repel each other. This happens when both of the objects south pole or north pole is facing one another and since same charges repel, the two objects repel each other. The third and final way that magnetism affects objects is that it can cause an object to become magnetized. Every magnet has charged particles, which means that every magnet has electrons. As those electrons move around the nucleus, they create a magnetic field. A magnet has a huge number of magnetic domains that are lined up and pointing in the same direction. Since this is true, once a strong magnet is held up to an object that is not magnetic but has the ability to become magnet, like iron or steel, it causes the object's magnetic field to line up with the magnet's magnetic field. This process causes the object to become magnetized. These are the three ways that magnetism can affects objects and what magnetism is.



**How Magnetism can be used on Mars** There are a lot of different way that magnetism could be used on Mars. Some of those ways are used to protect us, find objects, and guide us on Mars. One of the simplest but most affective way that we would use magnetism on Mars would be to make compass and then use that compass. Without a compass we would have no sense of our direction and would not be able to tell what direction we are going. We would also use magnetism to attract and repel objects. It would be useful to use magnetism to attract objects so we could figure out what was magnetic on Mars and also to move different magnetic objects on Mars with a strong magnet. It would be useful to use magnetism to repel objects on Mars so that if we needed to move something away we could make the two objects repel which makes it possible to move or steer the two objects. However, the most important way that magnetism would help us on Mars is to protect us from the harmful particles of the Sun. Every magnet has a magnetic field and that magnetic field can be used to repel against the harmful particles that the Sun spits out. If we create a magnetic field around Mars, like Earth has then we would be protected from the harmful particles. Overall, there are many different ways that magnetism would help us on our search for life on Mars and without it, the process would be very hard.

//**Astronomy - the Formation of the Universe**//

**Big Bang to Galaxies** The video Bing Bang to Galaxies talked about how the Earth was formed. It mentioned that the Earth began forming about 15 billion years ago and was believed to have exploded out of nothing. When it first formed, it was very hot and took up the space of about the size of an atomic nucleus. However, this changed rather quickly. The Earth quickly starts expanding and created different particles of matter, like antiquarks, energy, and quarks. Before the Earth was about a tenth of a millisecond old, protons and neutrons were forming. Afterwards, the Earth was then dominated by smaller particles like, energy, muon, positron, and electron. After about 3 minutes, protons and neutrons combined to create helium nucleus. Later, when the temperature dropped down to 3,000 degrees Kelvin, electrons started orbiting around protons and hydrogen nuclei to create atoms. After this, the Earth started getting its shape. Then about 2 millions years after the Big Bang, the formation of galaxies started. Galaxies that collide head on can form larger galaxies because of the collision. The video talked about the how galaxies were classified. It said that they were classified by their shape and that the different classes are; elliptical, spiral, and irregular. The video also mentioned that over the years the galaxies moved and are closer together now than they were back then.

**The Milky Way Galaxy** When we look up at the sky, we see millions of stars. However, did you know that sometimes you are seeing galaxies. The reason why is because the light seen from galaxies comes from stars. There are many different types of galaxies, but the one main galaxy that the video focused on was the Milky Way Galaxy. The Milky Way Galaxy, as the video said, "...was the insiders view of our galaxy." Imagine looking out at the night sky and seeing what appears to be the Milky Way. If you looked at it flat on, it looks like a disk of stars that are about 100,000 light years across, gas and dust, and a central bulge. Inside the central bulge is the sun. However, if we were to look down at the galaxy we would see four spiraling arms. If were to then zoom in on the central bulge, which is where the nucleus is, we would see what looks like red and orange stars. The video also mentioned that behind the Milky Way a dwarf galaxy is merging. Aside from the view of the Galaxy from different perspectives, the video mentioned that the galaxy turned, however, very slowly. The video said that the sun in the central bulge takes about 250 millions years to turn around once. This is what the Milky Way Galaxy video talked about and described.

**The Lives of Stars** While watching the video about the lives of stars, I learned what stars are and how they are formed. The video said that stars are formed out of gas and dust and almost always contain a core. It also mentioned that a blast wave from an exploding star or something else causes clumps or cores to form in the star. After learning about how a star and its core is formed, the video talked about all the wonderful things that the core does for the star. The video said that the falling gas heats up the core and that when this happens the temperature of the core gets hot enough for nuclear reactions to occur. The core also spins faster as it shrinks down and the surrounding ball of gas shrinks down into a disk. The video also mentioned that the core rotates. Aside from talking about the core of a star, the video talked about helium and how it is important to a star. The video said that helium provides the star with a huge amount of nuclear energy. In addition, the video talked about the surface of a star. It said that the surface temperature of a star also plays an important role to the star. The reason why is because the surface temperature of a star can affect the color that a star appears. In the video watched about stars, it said that the most massive stars are bluish/white with a surface temperature around 40,000 degrees. The order then goes; cream color stars, yellow color stars, orange color stars, and finally the smallest star is a orange/red colored star. The video also mentioned the Sun. The video said that the Sun is a star and that it was believed that it formed about 5 billion years ago from an interstellar cloud. It then settled into a period of being a yellow star. The video also included that one day the Sun could turn into a white dwarf star. However, the most interesting part of the video was when it mentioned that white dwarf stars eventually cool down and fade! Could you ever imagine this happening to the Sun?

**The Sun** In the video watched about the Sun, I learned how the Sun formed and what it is made out of. In the video it described how the Sun is a star and that it is no different from any other star in the sky, except that it is much closer to the Earth than any of the other stars are. The video also mentioned that the Sun is a ball of gas and that 76% of its mass is hydrogen and the rest is helium. The video also talked about the different parts of the Sun. Here I learned that the Sun's outermost layer is called the corona and that the Sun's powerhouse is buried in its center core, where the temperature is 15 million degrees and where hydrogen nuclei and single protons crash into one another to build up into a nuclei of helium. The video also talked about how that every second 4 million tons of helium vanish to produce the Sun's energy and that this energy radiates outwards from the core. On the other hand, the outside of the Sun, otherwise known as the surface, is covered with hot gas. The video also mentioned some of the dangerous things that are produced by the Sun. For an example, the video said that the Sun produces solar flares which are the most intense bursts of energy. Another example is that the Sun spits out harmful particles that can go as far as the Earth and beyond. However, luckily, the Earth's magnetic field funnels the harmful particles downwards towards the north and south pole. When this happens, the particles then crash into the upper atmosphere creating the aurora. Going along with magnetic fields, the video also talked about how the Sun has a magnetic field. However, since the Sun spins, the magnetic field get distorted as the Sun spins around. This is what the video about the Sun talked about.

**History of the Solar System** The video History of the Solar System recaps the four videos summarized above and tells about the history of the Solar System. The video talked about where some of the planets formed in the Solar System. It said that in the outer solar system, that four large masses formed. They were Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. The video also talked about the inner solar system and that there were to many collisions for large planets to form. However, later the four terrestrial planets merged. They were Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. It later was mentioned that Venus, Earth, and Mars acquired their atmosphere at a later age. The video also talked about the Moon. The video said that the Moon was probably created through the collision of the Earth and another planet about the size of Mars. In addition, the video mentioned planetesimals. the video talked about how they were formed. The video said that planetesimals were formed in the beginning of each star when inside the disc, the solid materials started collecting into larger particles and clumping. The video also talked about how most the planetesimals were destroyed and when they were destroyed what they became. The video said that icy planetesimals became comets, that others were captured and used as the moons of planets, and that others were used to form the rings around the planets by colliding together with comets. Finally, the last and probably the most interesting point that the video talked about was about the dinosaurs and their extinction. The video said that a comet might have been responsible for the extinction of dinosaurs. This makes me wonder…. "Could this be true?"

//**Rocket History**//

There are a lot of different inventions that have helped form and create the rockets that we have today. One of the first devices that was successful in employing the principles essential to rocket flight was a rocket-like device called an aeolipile. Around the time of about 100 B.C. a Greek inventor named Hero of Alexandria used steam as a propulsive gas. Hero mounted a sphere on top of a water kettle and had a fire below the kettle to turn the water into steam. There were two L-shaped tubes located on opposite sides of the sphere that allowed gas to escape. This gave a thrust to the sphere that caused it to rotate. This idea formed a basic engine that later many different inventors would base their ideas off to create rocket engines of their own. Besides these two events, historians and people living today don’t know exactly when the first rockets were made or appeared, and this remains unclear to the world. Nevertheless, there are stories that tell of early rocket like devices that appear through the historical records of various cultures. One of these cultures that believed to have created a rocket-like device was the Chinese. The Chinese created a simple form of gunpowder made from saltpeter, sulfur, and charcoal dust. To create explosion during religious festivals, they used to fill bamboo tubes with a mixture and tossed them into the fires. After this, the Chinese started experimenting with gunpowder filled tubes. At one point in time, they actually attached bamboo tubes to arrows and launched them with bows. They then discovered that these gunpowder tubes could launch themselves just by the power that was produced from the escaping gas, and then the true rocket was born.
 * Rocketry **** in the Early Years **

Below is a hand drawn picture of the Chinese Fire-Arrows that were believed to be the the invention of the first true rocket. Later in time, around 1232 was when the first reporting of the use of true rockets was used. During this time, the Chinese and the Mongols were at war with each other. The Chinese used their Fire-Arrows to repel the Mongols. People believe that this was the first reporting of when true rockets were used because the Fire-Arrows were believed to be a simple form of a solid-propellant rocket. After the war between the Mongols and the Chinese, the Mongols started producing their own rockets that might have been responsible for the spread of rockets to Europe. Through the 13th to 15th centuries, there were many different reports about many different rocket experiments among Europe. During this time, there was an improved form of gunpowder made in England and in France it was found that more accurate flights could be achieved by launching rockets through tubes. In addition, in Italy, Joanes de Fontana designed a surface-running rocket-powered torpedo that could be used to set enemy ships on fire. Even with all of this inventions from the different European countries, it was easy to tell that rocket were mainly used for either warfare or fireworks.

**Rocketry Today** A Russian schoolteacher named Konstantin Tsiolkovsky contributed an important idea to modern rocketry. His contribution was the suggestion that people should use liquid propellants in order for rockets to achieve greater range. This idea later helped when sending rockets on explorations to space. Another contribution to modern rocketry was given by an American named Robert H. Goddard. Goddard wanted to test different ways in order for rockets to achieve higher altitudes than lighter-than-air-balloons. To do this, he tested many different types of solid fuels and measured the exhaust velocities of the burning gases. He also had the idea that a rocket could be propelled much better by liquid fuel. Later on March 16, 1926 Goddard was able to achieve the first successful flight with a liquid-propellant rocket. This idea was the forerunner in a new era in rocket flight.

Below is a picture of what Goddard's 1926 Rocket looked like.

//**Rocket Experiment**//

Each of the labeled parts on the picture below, play an important part in the mechanics of a rocket. Here is how each of the parts are important to the mechanics of rockets. The nose cone labeled on the rocket is important because it guides the airflow around the rocket. The body tube is important because it is the main structural part of the rocket. The launch lug is important because it helps to guide the rocket off the launch pad and into the air. The fin(s) of the rocket are important because they are used to keep the rocket traveling straight, so that it doesn’t change direction and get off course.



Just like the picture before this one, each of the labeled parts in the picture below play an important part in the mechanics of a rocket. Here is how each of the parts are important to the mechanics of rockets. The recovery system is important because it is the device that is responsible for getting the rocket back safely and intact to Earth so that the rocket can be used for farther purposes. The recovery wadding is important because it is used to protect the recovery system of the rocket from hot ejection charge gases. The motor mount is important because it is used to hold the motor in place so that it doesn’t move. The rocket motor is important because it is used to propel the rocket upwards and is what keeps the rocket moving at all times.



The purpose of the experiment was to determine how mass affects the max altitude of an object. The experiment was performed by first constructing eight rockets. After each of the rockets were built, they were each painted, which effected the mass of the rocket. After each of the rockets were painted, they were launched. However, before the rockets were launched, 100 meters from the rocket launch site was measured. We had to be 100 meters away from the launch site in order to get the altitude angle of the rocket by using a angle gun. To measure 100 meters away from the launch site we used a trundle wheel. After 100 meters was counted, the engine, which was attached to the rocket during the construction period, was set on fire and the rocket was launched. During the launching process, the angle that the rocket flew was recorded using the angle gun. After the angle was taken, it was recorded on a sheet where it would later be used in a trigonometry equation in order to find the max altitude of the rocket. In order to find the max altitude of the rocket, a equation that involved trigonometry was used. The equation was set up so that we multiplied 100 meters by the tangent of the angle degrees that was recorded after it was measured by the angle gun. For my rocket, the equation looked like this, 100 * tan(38). After setting the equation up, the numbers from the equation were plugged into a calculator. After plugging in the numbers from my equation on my calculator, it was found that the max altitude of my rocket was 78.1 meters. After figuring out the max altitude of my rocket, I then repeated the steps for figuring out the max altitude of each rocket 7 times until all of the max altitudes of the rockets had been found. After conducting the experiment, it was found that most of the rockets had a max altitude between 60 and 102 meters. It was also found that the highest max altitude was 101.8 meters and that the lowest max altitude was 60.1 meters. Based off the results of the experiment, I believe that my hypothesis was false. The reason why I think that my hypothesis was false was because after conducting the experiment, it was found that the mass of the rocket didn’t affect the max altitude of the rocket at all. The rocket with the greatest mass had a max altitude of 83.9 meters which is only about 17 meters from the greatest max altitude of all the rockets tested. It was also found that the rocket with the least amount of mass, which was 44.0 grams, flew about 94.9 meters which is only about 6 meters away from the highest max altitude. These two rockets with the least amount of mass and greatest amount mass still flew about the same altitude as the other rockets with either greater or lower mass than they did. Thus proving the point that the mass of the rocket doesn’t affect the max altitude of the rocket.

Below is a graph of the results from the rocket experiment.

Overall, my rocket flew very well. Before it reached the air, the rocket had a hard time leaving the launch pad and setting the engine on fire to propel the rocket upwards. However, after the engine did ignite, the rocket shot up a good distance. While the rocket was still in the air, it turned over a couple of times and changed direction often. However, while coming back down to the surface of the Earth, the parachute had a hard time deploying and in the end actually didn’t open the full way to slow down the speed of the rocket while in the air. After examining the rocket after it landed, it was found that everything on the rocket stayed the same, except that the engine was no longer attached to the rocket and that part of the parachute had been burned. At the end of the flight of my rocket, I learned that my rocket had an altitude height of 78.1 meters, which was only 23 meters away from the max altitude height recorded. This was a very successful flight for a hand-made rocket that weighed only 38 grams! However, there were also things that I could improve on for my next rocket flight. One thing that I could improve on for my next rocket flight is first, fixing the parachute and making sure that it deploys properly. If the parachute worked and deployed at the right time, the rockets would not have such a harsh landing. Another thing that could be improved would be to make sure that the engine ignited when it was supposed to, by maybe changing our engine. This might help the rocket fly farther because the engine wouldn’t be so worn out. The reason why the engine would be worn out is because trying to ignite the engine so many times could burn some of engine meaning that the engine wouldn’t be able to burn as long as it would if it had left the launch pad on the first try of igniting it. Even though there were things that could be improved, I thought that there were things that went well during the flight. For an example, I thought that the construction of my rocket was okay for being the first attempt. I say this because the parachute did get caught while it was trying to deploy, which has something to do with the interior structure of the rocket, but other than that, I believe that the construction was okay. Not to mention, I also liked the paint job on my rocket. I thought it was very creative and vibrant. However, the paint job didn’t only affect the overall appearance of my rocket, it also affected the mass of my rocket. Painting the rocket affected the mass of the rocket because the amount of paint the was added to the rocket increased the weight and the mass of our rocket, because the paint that we added weighed something which contributed to the total mass of the rocket. Luckily, I believe that the added mass of the paint didn’t affect the flight of my rocket.

//**Mars Rover Drop**// For the design of my group's Mars Rover Drop vehicle, we went with the idea of creating a mini parachutes in order to increase the time of fall and decrease the amount of impact on the can of applesauce so that it didn’t break. In order to accomplish this idea, we used 2 balloons, a plastic bag, 1 meter of string, tape, two plastic cups, a plastic bag, 3 sheets of paper towels, and bubble rap. To construct the Mars Rover Drop vehicle, we first cut four small rectangular pieces of bubble rap and placed them in the two cups so that each cup had two rectangular pieces of bubble rap inside of it. We then cut another rectangular piece of bubble rap and placed it on top of one of the cups filled with bubble rap. We then took the other cup and placed it upside down with the open end facing the bubble rap that was laid on top of the other cup. We then taped the two cups together, with the bubble rap in between them. Next, we hole-punched two holes, opposite from each other, in one of the cups. The other cup, without any holes, would be what we put the applesauce can in. After hole-punching the two holes in one of the cups, we then cut the 1 meter string in half and stick the two strings half way through the holes so that one piece of string was in the one hole and the other one was in the other hole and tapped them there. We then took the plastic bag and placed the two cups that were tapped together and the strings that were attached to one of the cups inside the plastic bag. We then blew up the plastic bag with air and sipped it shut. However, when we sipped the bag shut, we made sure that the other half of the piece of strings that weren't inside the cup were on the outside of the bag, like shown in the picture below this paragraph. Our last step was to then blow up the two balloons and tie them to the two strings that were located outside the sipped up bag. After we did this, our Mars Rover Drop vehicle had been constructed and was ready to be used.

Below is a hand-drawn diagram showing how the vehicle looked when it was finished being constructed.

Thinking back, the process of building the rover was very fun and educational, yet challenging at the same time. It was challenging because we had to plan ahead and think about what materials we were going to use and the best way to design and construct the rover. After thinking long and hard, we were able to come up with an idea. Our idea was to design the rover so that it increased the time of fall in order to decrease the amount of impact, by creating mini parachutes. To create the mini parachutes, we used the 2 blown up balloons. After we had the mini parachutes created, we then designed what the applesauce was going to be held in. To do this, we decided to make something that not only cushioned the applesauce, but also made sure that it didn’t move or fall out. In the end, we ended up using 2 cups that were filled with bubble rap to cushion the can of applesauce and contain it, so that it didn’t move. Then, to help decrease the amount of impact the applesauce fell, we then took a plastic bag and placed the two cups containing the bubble rap and the can of applesauce inside the plastic bag and blew it up so that it also cushioned the can of applesauce so that it would not break. When then took 3 sheets of paper towels, broke them apart and then crumpled each piece into a ball and placed those inside of the plastic bag.

After constructing our Mars Rover Drop vehicle, the vehicle shown below, we finally put it to the test and threw it from the top of the tennis pavilion onto the hard tennis courts at Cary Academy. When we dropped the vehicle, it was easy to tell what worked well. We seeing our vehicle in action, I noticed that the two balloons worked very well and did act like little parachutes to increase the time of the fall and decrease the amount of impact. In addition, I also saw that the contraption of the two cups filled with bubble rap to protect the applesauce worked well. It worked well because if weren't for the bubble rap and the two cups protecting the applesauce, the applesauce can would have broken and shattered. I also thought that the idea of putting the two cups which contained the bubble rap and the applesauce inside the plastic bag was a good idea and worked well. I thought that this idea worked well because it provided extra cushion and support for the can of applesauce, to make sure that it didn’t brake or shatter. Overall, I thought that every aspect of our vehicle worked well and that nothing didn’t work well. However, there is one modification that I would like to make for the next time. The one modification that I would like to make for next time is to try to make another parachute device to help increase the time of fall, which would decrease the amount of impact on the can of applesauce. I think that this would be a good idea to add on to our vehicle because it would help decrease the amount of impact that the can of applesauce would experience, which meant that the can of applesauce would have a less likely chance of breaking.

Below is a picture of my group's finished and fully constructed Mars Rover Drop vehicle.

//**The History of Robots**//

**Ancient Robots** A robot is a machine that has the ability of carrying out commands sent from humans through a computer and is able to be programmed to do different tasks. Over the past decades, there have been many inventors and inventions that have shaped and changed the idea of robots and how they are used. The precise date of when robots were first invented remains unknown, but we have recordings of different ancient civilizations that were believed to have used robots or have invented an important aspect of robotics. People believe that engineers and inventors from different ancient civilizations like Ancient China, Ancient Greece, and Ptolemaic Egypt attempted to build self-operating machines, also known as robots. In Ancient Greece, an engineer named Ctesibius produced the first organ and water clocks with moving figures by applying the knowledge of pneumatics and hydraulics. Later a Greek mathematician and inventor created automated devices that were described as machines that were powered by air pressure, steam, and water. These ideas and inventions from Greece could have been the early inventions and ideas of robots and robotics. There are also many different stories from different cultures that tell of robots protecting monuments or inventions of mechanical-human like machines being given to the King as a gift. Later in time, remote-controlled systems were being invented and then used. Late in the 19th century, remotely operated vehicles were demonstrated in the form of torpedoes. The Brennan torpedo is believe to be one of the earliest "guided missiles." Now the idea of remote-controlled devices fills our house-holds, our factories, and the war zones. It wasn't until 1928 when the first humanoid robot was exhibited at the annual exhibitions of Model Engineers Society in London. The robot, invented by W.H. Richards, consisted of an aluminum body of armour, eleven electromagnets, and one motor that was powered by a 12-volt power source. The ideas from ancient history like the ones above, go a long way in creating and improving not only robots, but also civilization as we speak. Below is a diagrammed picture of the Brennan torpedo that was believed to be one of the first "guided missiles".

**Modern Robots** Today robots are used for many different proposes. Some include, welding steel, building cars, or performing surgery. Inventors and engineers have worked hard over the past years to create and enhance robots and what we think about them. Using the technology and resources available to them, they have created robots that have the ability to move around whereas in the ancient time, the robots were fixed to stay in one physical location. The idea of the mobile robots changed not only the idea of robots, but also people's lifestyle. Mobile robots have so many features and can be used for different purposes. Some can be used for entertainment, while other can to used to perform certain tasks, like cleaning or vacuuming. There are now industrial robots that are built with a jointed arm and create different products and help the factories around us produce their goods quicker and better so that we can have them faster and be more satisfied. However, in my idea, the best use for robots of this time is to be used in schools and help teach. Your probably thinking "How can robots be used in schools to teach our children?" Well, the answer is quite simple. Educational robots are programmed to assistant the teachers in teaching and otherwise be known as teaching assistants. Not only that, but different robots kits like Lego Mindstorms or BIOLOID help children learn about different subjects like, mathematics, physics, programming, and electronics. There is also a type of robot called a collaborative robot of cobot that safely and effectively interacts with humans workers while performing industrial tasks. Today, robots help us produce goods, teach children, and overall work better. It is hard to imagine a world without robots helping us to advance and move forward.

Below is a picture of a modern robot working in a factory.

//**Programming Robots**//

Overall, programming robots can be fun, yet challenging and difficult at the same time. In order to program a robot to move, you must first attach a motor. A motor can be programmed to move a robot by giving it different commands. For an example, you can program the motor to move forward 3 rotations and then to stop. You can also program the motor to accelerate forward after a certain amount of rotations, turn either right or left, make a curve turn, make a point turn, and many other things. These are also the different types of robots movements that are possible, along with many others. Some other robot movements are, to drive in a square, reverse, and park. All of these different robot movements have their own unique way to be programmed, so it is important to make sure that you have programmed the robot the correct way in order for it to carry out the task that you want it to do. Programming the motor to do exactly what you it to do can be very challenging. The reason why is because if you program the motor the wrong way then it won't carry out the certain task that you want it to, but instead carry out a different task that you weren't expecting. This can not only be challenging, but also frustrating. Another challenge with using motors with a robot would be that sometimes the motor won't work, which results in the robot itself not working and being unable to carry out a certain task, again this can be very frustrating. However, once and if you can identify and fix the motor, your robot will start to work again and then carry out certain tasks.

Below is a picture of a NXT Robot that has a motor which can be programmed to perform certain tasks.

A sensor is a device that can be used to measure a physical quantity and then convert it into a signal which can be read by an electronic instrument. On the Lego Mindstorms robot that we are using in class (robot shown in picture above), we are programming and using four different types of sensors. The four different sensors are; ultrasonic sensor, light sensor, sound sensor, and touch sensor. Ultrasonic sensors work by generating high frequency sound waves and then evaluating the echo which is then received back by the sensors. Ultrasonic sensors can be used to help a robots perform tasks by sensing objects that are close to the robot. This means that the robot would have a less likely chance of hitting an object with the ultrasonic sensor detecting the closeness of the object. Light sensors work by detecting the lightness or darkness of the objects around them. From there, a robot can then follow the light given off from the object and can then follow the object. Light sensors can be used to help robots because once some kind of light is detected, the robot will then follow the light automatically, after certain programming. Sound sensors work by detecting sound and then carrying out a task after it detects the sound. You can program a robot to hear a sound and then after they hear that sound, turn, accelerate, stop, reverse, and many other things. This can be used to help robots because it can cause them to change directions, accelerate, reverse, and other things in order to perform certain tasks. Touch sensors work by detecting the touch of an object and which then can cause the robot to accelerate, stop, change direction, reverse, and many other things. Touch sensors can be used to help robots because it can help them know when the make a curve turn, point turn, drive in square, or other things. Overall, sensors can help robots perform certain tasks by controlling the robots movements.

Below is a picture of a sound sensor that the Lego Mindstroms robot uses.

//**Geology on Mars**//

**Identifying Minerals** Overall, there are many different ways that minerals can be identified. The most common ways are by the minerals appearance, hardness, luster, streak, cleavage or fracture, light refraction, and other properties like if the mineral is magnetic. Geologist on Earth would perform an appearance test by looking at the mineral. To do this, they would just look at the mineral and observe its color, texture, and other properties like the color of the mineral when it is crushed into a powder. Geologist on Earth would perform a hardness test by scratching the mineral with different objects like a person's fingernail, piece of copper, iron nail, glass, steel file, or a streak plate. Then, based on what scratched the mineral, it would be compared to the Mohs scale. The Mohs scale goes from 1 to 10, 10 being the hardest mineral and 1 being the softest mineral. The scale works so that if the a mineral was scratched by a fingernail then it would automatically have a hardness of 2.5. Each of the objects are linked with a hardness, like if a mineral was to be scratched by a piece of copper it would have a hardness of about 2.5 to 3.0. Geologist on Earth would perform a luster test by looking at the mineral and seeing if it reflects light. Geologist on Earth would perform a streak test by taking the mineral and scratching it against a black and a white streak plate. When this happens, the mineral leaves a line behind in which the geologists use to identify the mineral. Geologist would perform a cleavage test on a mineral by rubbing a mineral against different surfaces, like soft and rough surfaces to see if it breaks. After the test is conducted, the minerals that broke when being rubbed on soft surfaces are the minerals that have cleavage. However, if the minerals tested didn’t break when rubbed on soft surfaces, but broke when rubbed on rough surfaces than those minerals have fracture. Geologist would perform a light refraction test by taking the minerals and holding them up to their eye and seeing if they are able to see through the mineral. When the geologists hold the mineral up to their eye, the light that passes through the mineral is slightly changed and the way that it is changed can help to identify a mineral.

Below is a picture of the Mohs hardness scale that helps rank the hardness of minerals based on what they were scratched by.

**Curiosity - How it Performs Geology Experiments on Mars** Curiosity is a car-sized robotic rover that is currently exploring the Gale Crater. Curiosity was launched by NASA from Cape Canaveral on November 26, 2011 and landed on Gale Crater. Curiosity was sent to land on Gale Crater because Gale Crater has the thickest package of sediment identified on Mars. This thick package of sediment will help Curiosity carry out its goal of conducting different experiments in order to learn if Mars was ever inhabited or could be habited. Its crazy to think that a rover millions of miles away from Earth could perform an experiment to figure out if Mars was ever inhabited or if it could be habited. However, Curiosity can! Curiosity contains a MSL or Mars Science Laboratory inside of it which enables it perform experiments on its own. To perform the experiment, Curiosity drills into the soil of the Gale Crater and then collects the powder from the drilled rocks. Next, the rover takes the powder from the rocks and delivers it into two analytical laboratories which are located inside of the rover. After it delivers the powder, the two laboratories heat the powder into a gas. Then, lasers are used to determine what minerals are present in the rock and what chemical elements are present as well. After everything has been observed and analyzed, Curiosity sends the information that it just learned to NASA and then empties its laboratories so it is ready to do the process all over again.

Below is a picture of Curiosity on its first drilling tests.